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Electromagnetism
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The nineteenth century opened with the discovery by Alessandro Volta of the electric battery, the first generator capable of supplying a long-lasting electric current. Volta's invention made possible a series of decisive advances. They include the observations by Hans Christian Oersted on the reciprocal action of electrical currents and magnets, and the discoveries by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry on induced currents. François Arago, meanwhile, proposed an elaborate mathematical theory of electromagnetic phenomena. These breakthroughs gave a powerful impetus to the development and diversification of electrical instruments for research and teaching purposes. The first half of the century saw the first practical applications of electrical currents—most notably in the fields of electrochemistry (galvanoplasty, for example) and telegraphy. However, the technology for electric lighting and for the conversion of electricity into mechanical energy and vice versa on an industrial scale was not developed until the last decades of the nineteenth century. In 1867, James Maxwell, in a brilliant synthesis, defined the equations that provided an explanation of classical electromagnetic phenomena in all their complexity. Some twenty years later, Heinrich Hertz demonstrated, through experiment, the existence of electromagnetic waves. Predicted by Maxwell's equations, the waves were to be used, starting in the late nineteenth century, for the development of wireless telegraphy. At the century's close, the study of gas discharges led to the discovery of X-rays and the electron, opening new horizons for twentieth-century physics.

Objects
Apparatus demonstrating electrodynamic attraction and repulsion

Apparatus demonstrating electrodynamic attraction and repulsion

Inv. 375
Tecnomasio Italiano, Milan, ca. 1865

Astatic galvanometer, Nobili pattern

Astatic galvanometer, Nobili pattern

Inv. 1417
T. Gourjon, Paris, 1840

Demonstration model of astatic galvanometer

Demonstration model of astatic galvanometer

Inv. 541
Maker unknown, second half 19th cent.

Demonstration model of Oersted's experiment

Demonstration model of Oersted's experiment

Inv. 1201
Carlo Dell'Acqua, Milan, ca. 1850

Duchenne's medical magneto-electrical machine

Duchenne's medical magneto-electrical machine

Inv. 456
Deleuil firm, Paris, ca. 1870

Electric motor after Botto

Electric motor after Botto

Inv. 1412
Maker unknown, ca. 1840

Electric motor by Pacinotti

Electric motor by Pacinotti

Inv. 3768
Maker unknown, ca. 1863

Galvanometer, Magrini pattern

Galvanometer, Magrini pattern

Inv. 872
Maker unknown, ca. 1850

Gaulard and Gibbs secondary generator

Gaulard and Gibbs secondary generator

Inv. 394
Lucien Gaulard, John Gibbs, 1884

Kit of magneto-electric machine, Clarke pattern

Kit of magneto-electric machine, Clarke pattern

Inv. 515
Maker unknown, ca. 1840

Magneto-electric machine by Pixii

Magneto-electric machine by Pixii

Inv. 552
Hippolyte Pixii, Paris, ca. 1832

Magrini's electric motor

Magrini's electric motor

Inv. 916
Maker unknown, ca. 1840

Maiocchi's universal galvanometer

Maiocchi's universal galvanometer

Inv. 1166
Carlo Dell'Acqua, Milan, second half 19th cent.

Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile

Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile

Inv. 1237
Maker unknown, ca. 1831

Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile

Nobili-Melloni radiant-heat thermopile

Inv. 3758
Giuseppe Caldini, Florence, ca. 1880

Nobili's battery for his metalochromic apparatus

Nobili's battery for his metalochromic apparatus

Inv. 3761
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's box thermopile

Nobili's box thermopile

Inv. 1230
Tecnomasio Italiano firm [attr.], Milan, ca. 1870

Nobili's box thermopile

Nobili's box thermopile

Inv. 1231
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's constant-current thermopile

Nobili's constant-current thermopile

Inv. 1227
Maker unknown, ca. 1829

Nobili's differential galvanometer

Nobili's differential galvanometer

Inv. 1185
Maker unknown, ca. 1829

Nobili's disk-pattern radiant-heat thermopile

Nobili's disk-pattern radiant-heat thermopile

Inv. 1236
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's double sparking magnet

Nobili's double sparking magnet

Inv. 1273
Corrado Wolf, Florence, 1835

Nobili's electromagnetic kit

Nobili's electromagnetic kit

Inv. 1553
Maker unknown, ca. 1833

Nobili's flat coil

Nobili's flat coil

Inv. 465
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's hydroelectric galvanometer

Nobili's hydroelectric galvanometer

Inv. 366
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's instantaneous-current galvanometer

Nobili's instantaneous-current galvanometer

Inv. 1274
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's large astatic galvanometer

Nobili's large astatic galvanometer

Inv. 1324
Maker unknown, 1826

Nobili's large membrane cell

Nobili's large membrane cell

Inv. 1238
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's membrane cells

Nobili's membrane cells

Inv. 1172, 1239
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's metalochromes

Nobili's metalochromes

Inv. 3881
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's metalochromic apparatus

Nobili's metalochromic apparatus

Inv. 1242
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's metalochromic apparatus

Nobili's metalochromic apparatus

Inv. 1234, 1271
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's model of Ampère's theory of magnetism

Nobili's model of Ampère's theory of magnetism

Inv. 3760
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's models of Ampère's theory of magnetism

Nobili's models of Ampère's theory of magnetism

Inv. 3759
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's models of magnetic field

Nobili's models of magnetic field

Inv. 1179
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's prototype thermopile

Nobili's prototype thermopile

Inv. 1233
Maker unknown, ca. 1829

Nobili's rotating electromagnetic coil

Nobili's rotating electromagnetic coil

Inv. 377
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's sparking magnet

Nobili's sparking magnet

Inv. 1270
Maker unknown, ca. 1832

Nobili's sparking magnet

Nobili's sparking magnet

Inv. 1272
Maker unknown, 1832

Nobili's static-electricity galvanometer

Nobili's static-electricity galvanometer

Inv. 372
Maker unknown, ca. 1830

Nobili's thermopile with micrometers

Nobili's thermopile with micrometers

Inv. 1224
Maker unknown, ca. 1834

Reis telephone transmitter

Reis telephone transmitter

Inv. 447
Maker unknown, ca. 1870

Wheatstone rheostat

Wheatstone rheostat

Inv. 1408
Filippo de Palma, Naples, 1865

Wheatstone's A.B.C. telegraph transmitter

Wheatstone's A.B.C. telegraph transmitter

Inv. 545
Charles Wheatstone, ca. 1840